History Women in medicine

1 history

1.1 ancient medicine
1.2 medieval europe
1.3 medieval islamic world
1.4 western medicine in china
1.5 modern era

1.5.1 historic women s medical schools
1.5.2 historic hospitals significant female involvement
1.5.3 pioneering women in modern medicine

1.5.3.1 18th century
1.5.3.2 19th century
1.5.3.3 20th century




1.6 women s health movement in 1970s

history

hildegard of bingen, medieval german abbess wrote causae et curae, medical text.



russian empress alexandra feodorovna vera gedroitz, 1915



elizabeth blackwell, md, first woman graduate medical school in united states (1849).



woman s medical college of pennsylvania in 1886: anandibai joshi, marathi hindu india (left) kei okami, christian japan (center) , sabat islambooly, jewish woman syria (right). 3 completed medical studies , each of them first woman respective countries obtain degree in western medicine.


ancient medicine

the involvement of women in field of medicine has been recorded in several civilizations. egyptian of dynastic period or old kingdom of egypt, merit-ptah, described in inscription chief physician , earliest woman named in history of science. agamede cited homer healer in ancient greece before trojan war. agnodice first female physician practice legally in 4th century bc athens. metrodora physician , regarded first medical writer. book, on diseases , cures of women, oldest medical book written female , referenced many other female physicians. credited of writings ideologies of hippocrates.

pioneering women in ancient medicine


merit ptah (2700 bc), earliest cited female physician
agamede, pre-trojan war healer
agnodike first female physician practice legally in 4th century bc athens.

medieval europe

during middle ages, convents important place of education women, , of these communities provided opportunities women contribute scholarly research. example german abbess hildegard of bingen, prolific writings include treatments of various scientific subjects, including medicine, botany , natural history (c.1151-58). considered germany s first female physician.

women in middle ages participated in many healing techniques , capacities. according historical documents, small numbers of women occupied ranks of medical personnel during period. worked herbalists, midwives, surgeons, barber-surgeons, nurses, , traditional empirics. women treated everyone, not women historians once thought. names of 24 women described surgeons in naples between 1273 , 1410 known, , references have been found 15 women practitioners, of them jewish , none described midwives, in frankfurt between 1387 , 1497. women engaged in midwifery , healing arts without leaving trace of activities in written records, , practiced in rural areas or there little access medical care. society in middle ages limited women’s role physician. once universities established faculties of medicine during thirteenth century, women excluded advanced medical education. licensure began require clerical vows women ineligible, , healing profession became male dominated. in many occasions, women had fight against accusation of illegal practice done males, putting question real motives. if not accused of malpractice, women considered witches both clerical , civil authorities. because surgeons , barber-surgeons organized guilds, hold out longer against pressures of licensure. other guilds, number of barber-surgeon guilds allowed daughters , wives of members take membership in guild, after man’s death. according documents, katherine la surgiene of london, daughter of thomas surgeon , sister of william surgeon belonged guild in 1286. documentation of female members in guilds of lincoln, norwich, dublin , york continue until late in period. midwives, assisted pregnant women through childbirth , aftercare, included women. midwives constituted 1 third of female medical practitioners. men did not involve in women s medical care, likewise, women did not involve in men s health care. southern italian coastal town of salerno important center of medical learning , practice in 12th century. there, physician trota of salerno gathered number of medical practices in several written collections. 1 work on women s medicine associated her, de curis mulierum ( on treatments women ) formed core of came known trotula ensemble, compendium of 3 texts circulated throughout medieval europe. trota herself gained reputation spread far france , england. there references in writings of other salernitan physicians mulieres salernitane ( salernitan women ), give idea of local empirical practices.

dorotea bucca distinguished italian physician. held chair of philosophy , medicine @ university of bologna on forty years 1390. other italian women contributions in medicine have been recorded include abella, jacqueline felice de almania, alessandra giliani, rebecca de guarna, margarita, mercuriade (14th century), constance calenda, clarice di durisio (15th century), constanza, maria incarnata , thomasia de mattio.

pioneering women in medieval europe


trota of salerno 12th century physician collected many of empirical practices in writing. part of work incorporated so-called trotula compendium of writings on women s medicine , cosmetics.
hildegard of bingen (1098–1179) considered germany s first female physician. conducted , published comprehensive studies of medicine , natural science.

medieval islamic world

for medieval islamic world, little specific information known female medical practitioners although women regularly involved in medical practice in capacity. male medical writers refer presence of female practitioners (singular, ṭabība) in describing procedures or situations. example, late 10th/early 11th century andalusi physician , surgeon al-zahrawi, in explaining how excise bladder stones, notes procedure difficult male doctors practicing on female patients: because of need touch genitalia, male practitioner must either find female doctor can perform procedure, or eunuch physician, or midwife takes instruction male surgeon. in other words, though direct evidence female practitioners rare, existence can inferred. al-zahrawi s example suggests, midwives played important role in delivery of women s healthcare. these practitioners, there more detailed information, both in terms of prestige of craft (ibn khaldun calls noble craft, necessary in civilization ) , in terms of biographical information on historic women. date, no known medical treatise written woman in medieval islamic world has been identified.

pioneering women in medieval islamic world


rufaida al-aslamia (7th century ad) islamic medical , social worker recognized first female muslim nurse

western medicine in china

traditional chinese medicine based on use of herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage , other forms of therapy has been practiced in china thousands of years. however, western medicine introduced china in 19th century, medical missionaries sent various christian mission organizations, such london missionary society (britain), methodist church (britain) , presbyterian church (us). benjamin hobson (1816-1873), medical missionary sent london missionary society in 1839, set highly successful wai ai clinic (惠愛醫館) in guangzhou, china. hong kong college of medicine chinese (香港華人西醫書院) founded in 1887 london missionary society, first graduate (in 1892) being sun yat-sen (孫中山). sun later led 1911 xinhai revolution, changed china empire republic. hong kong college of medicine chinese forerunner of school of medicine of university of hong kong, started in 1911.

due social custom men , women should not near 1 another, women of china reluctant treated western male doctors. resulted in tremendous need female doctors. 1 of these sigourney trask of methodist episcopal church, set-up hospital in fuzhou during mid-18th century. trask arranged local girl, hü king eng, study medicine @ ohio wesleyan female college, intention hü return practise western medicine in fuzhou. after graduation, hü became resident physician @ fuzhou s woolston memorial hospital in 1899 , trained several female physicians. female medical missionary dr. mary h. fulton (1854-1927) sent foreign missions board of presbyterian church (usa) found first medical college women in china. known hackett medical college women (夏葛女子醫學院), college located in guangzhou, china, , enabled large donation mr. edward a. k. hackett (1851-1916) of indiana, us. college dedicated in 1902 , offered four-year curriculum. 1915, there more 60 students, in residence. students became christians, due influence of dr. fulton. college officially recognized, diplomas marked official stamp of guangdong provincial government. college aimed @ spreading of christianity , modern medicine , elevation of chinese women s social status. david gregg hospital women , children (also known yuji hospital 柔濟醫院) affiliated college. graduates of college included chau lee-sun (周理信, 1890-1979) , wong yuen-hing (黃婉卿), both of whom graduated in late 1910s , practiced medicine in hospitals in guangdong province.

early modern era

in modern era, following middle ages, accuracy in documentation of women present in health field increased. increase in documentation gave clear representation of women engaged in healthcare of london residents.

historic women s medical schools

when women routinely forbidden medical school, sought form own medical schools.

new england female medical college, boston, founded in 1848.
woman s medical college of pennsylvania (founded 1850 female medical college of pennsylvania)
london school of medicine women (founded 1874 sophia jex-blake)
edinburgh school of medicine women (founded 1886 sophia jex-blake)
first pavlov state medical university of st. petersburg (founded 1897 female medical university)
tokyo women s medical university (founded 1900 yoshioka yayoi)
hackett medical college women, guangzhou, china, founded in 1902 presbyterian church (usa).

historic hospitals significant female involvement

woman s hospital of philadelphia, founded in 1861, provided clinical experience woman s medical college of pennsylvania students
new england hospital women , children (now called dimock community health center), founded in 1862 women doctors exclusive use of women , children
new hospital women (founded in 1870s elizabeth garrett anderson , run largely women, women)
south london hospital women , children (founded 1912 eleanor davies-colley , maud chadburn; closed 1984; employed all-woman staff)

pioneering women in modern medicine
18th century

dorothea erxleben (1715–1762), first female doctor granted m.d. in germany.
james miranda barry (179?-1865), renowned female doctor passed man gain medical education , practice medicine.

19th century

dolors aleu riera (1857–1913), first female medical doctor spain, 1879.
annie lowrie alexander (1864–1929), first licensed female physician in southern united states
elizabeth garrett anderson (1836–1917), pioneering female doctor , feminist in britain; co-founder of london school of medicine women.
lovisa Årberg (1801–1881), first female doctor , surgeon in sweden.
amalia assur (1803–1889), first female dentist in sweden , possibly europe.
elizabeth blackwell (1821–1910), first woman graduate medical school in us; md 1849, geneva college, new york.
madeleine brès (1839–1925), first french female md
milica Šviglin Čavov (b. unknown, circa 1870s), first croatian female doctor. graduated medical school in zürich in 1893, not allowed work in croatia.
margaret cleaves (1848–1917), pioneering doctor in brachytherapy; m.d. 1873.
rebecca lee crumpler, (8 february 1831 – 9 march 1895), first african american female physician in united states, awarded m.d. in 1864 new england female medical college in boston.
maria cuțarida-crătunescu (1857–1919) first female doctor in romania


maria cuțarida-crătunescu, first female doctor in romania, 1857-1919. stamp of romania, 2007.



bertha de vriese (1877–1958), first belgian woman obtain medical degree ghent university.
eloísa díaz (1866-1950), first chilean woman graduate medicine in universidad de chile. graduated on december 27, 1886 , obtained degree on january 3, 1887.
marie durocher (1809–1893), brazilian obstetrician, midwife , physician. first female doctor in americas.
marie equi (1872–1952), american doctor , activist women s access birth control , abortion.
anne walter fearn (1865-1938) doctor in shanghai, china, 40 years.
selma feldbach (may 5, 1878 - april 2, 1924) first estonian woman become medical doctor.
kadambini ganguly (1861–1923), first indian woman obtain medical degree in india having graduated calcutta medical college in 1886.
vera gedroitz (1870–1932), first professorix of surgery in world
ogino ginko (1851-1913), first licensed , practicing female physician of western medicine in japan.
anastasia golovina, known anastassya nikolau berladsky-golovina, , atanasya golovina (1850-1933), first bulgarian female doctor.
alice hamilton (february 27, 1869 – september 22, 1970) american physician, research scientist, , author best known leading expert in field of occupational health and pioneer in field of industrial toxicology. first woman appointed faculty of harvard university. 
rosina heikel (1842 - 1929), first female physician in finland (1878), first in nordic countries, md , feminist.
matilde hidalgo (1889–1974), first ecuadorian woman have obtained medical degree.
frances hoggan (1843–1927), first british woman receive doctorate in medicine (1870).
marie spångberg holth (1865-1942), first woman graduate in medicine in norway, occurred in 1893, when graduated royal frederiks university of christiania.
ana galvis hotz (1855-1934), first colombian woman, , latin america, obtain medical degree.
elsie inglis (1864–1917) pioneering scottish doctor , suffragist, born in india. md edinburgh school of medicine women, worked @ rotunda hospital, dublin
aletta jacobs (1854-1929), first woman complete university course in netherlands, , first dutch female md.
ana janer (b. unknown), 1 of first 4 women puerto rico earn medical degree; other 3 maría elisa rivera díaz in 1909, palmira gatell in 1910, , dolores piñero in 1913. ana janer , maría elisa rivera díaz graduated in same medical school class in 1909 , both considered first female puerto rican physician.
sophia jex-blake (1840-1912), english physician, feminist , teacher.
anandi gopal joshi (1865-1887), first indian woman obtain medical degree having graduated woman s medical college of pennsylvania in 1886.
bohuslava kecková (1854-1911), first bohemian (czech) woman obtain medical degree in 1880 university of zurich.
sun chau lee (周理信, 1890-1979), 1 of first female chinese doctors of western medicine in china.
hope bridges adams lehmann (1855-1916), first female general practitioner , gynecologist in munich, germany.
karola maier milobar (born 1876), became first female physician practice in croatia in 1906.
maria montessori (1870–1952), 1 of first female mds in italy; renowned educator
hannah myrick (1871–1973), helped introduce use of x-rays @ new england hospital women , children
concepción palacios herrera (1893-1981), first female physician in nicaragua.
ernestina paper (b. unknown, circa mid-1800s), first italian woman receive advanced degree (in medicine), 1877.
edith pechey-phipson (1845–1908), pioneering english doctor in india; md 1877, university of bern , licentiate in midwifery, 1877 royal college of physicians of ireland.
susan la flesche picotte (1865-1915), first native american woman obtain medical degree.
ann preston, (1813–1872), first female dean of medical school.
muthulakshmi reddi (1886–1968), 1 of female medical doctors in india , major social reformer.
bertha e. reynolds (1868-1961), among first women licensed practice medicine in wisconsin, serving rural communities of lone rock , avoca.
maría elisa rivera díaz (b. 1887), 1 of first 4 women puerto rico earn medical degree (which did in 1909); other 3 ana janer in 1909, palmira gatell in 1910, , dolores piñero in 1913. maría elisa rivera díaz , ana janer graduated in same medical school class in 1909 , both considered first female puerto rican physician.
laura esther rodriguez dulanto (1872–1919), first peruvian woman have obtained medical degree.
andrea evangelina rodríguez perozo (1879-1947), first female medical school graduate in dominican republic.
florence sabin (1871-1953), first woman elected national academy of sciences.
mary scharlieb (1845-1930), pioneer british female physician.
constance stone (1856-1902), first woman practice medicine in australia.
nadezhda suslova (1843–1918), first russian female md, graduate of zurich university
ah-hsin tsai (1899-1990), colonial taiwan s first female physician.
lucy hobbs taylor (1833–1910), first female dentist in united states.
anna petronella van heerden (1887–1975), first afrikaner woman qualify medical doctor. thesis, obtained doctorate on in 1923, first medical thesis written in afrikaans.
emma k. willits (1869–1965), believed third woman specialize in surgery , first head department of general surgery @ children s hospital in san francisco, 1921-1934.
yoshioka yayoi (1871–1959), 1 of first women gain medical degree in japan; founded medical school women in 1900.

20th century

safieh ali (1900-1952), first turkish woman have obtained medical degree.
kornelija sertić (b. unknown, circa 1900), first woman graduate medical school in zagreb, occurred in 1923.
henriette bùi quang chiêu (1906-2012), first female doctor in vietnam.
yvonne sylvain (1907-1989), first female doctor in haiti. first woman accepted medical school of university of haiti, , earned medical degree there in 1940.
virginia apgar (1909–1974), significant work in anesthesiology , teratology; founded field of neonatology; first woman granted full professorship @ columbia university college of physicians & surgeons.
elizabeth abimbola awoliyi (1910-1971), first female physician in nigeria.
badri teymourtash (1911–1989), first iranian female medical doctor, educated in united states , belgium.
alma dea morani (1907-2001), first woman admitted american society of plastic , reconstructive surgeons
margaret allen, first female heart transplant surgeon in usa - transplant performed in 1985
jane elizabeth hodgson (1915–2006), pioneering provider of reproductive healthcare women , advocate women s rights.
susan gyankorama de-graft johnson (1917-1985), first woman qualify physician in colonial ghana.
mary malahele-xakana (1917-1982), first black woman register medical doctor in south africa (in 1947).
susan gyankorama de-graft johnson (1917-1985), first woman qualify physician in colonial ghana.
salma ismail (1918–2014), first malay woman qualify doctor.
estela gavidia (b. unknown, circa 1920), first woman graduate doctor in el salvador, occurred in 1945.
barbara ross-lee (b. 1942), first african american female dean of u.s. medical school (1993), ohio university college of osteopathic medicine.
rehana kausar (b. mid-20th century), first woman doctor azad kashmir graduate medical schoo in pakistan, occurred in 1971.
nancy dickey (b. 1950), first female president of american medical association
madeline nyamwanza-makonese (b. unknown, mid-20th century), first zimbabwean female doctor, second african woman become doctor, , first african woman graduate university of rhodesia medical school.
nancy c. andrews (b. 1958), first female dean of top ten medical school in united states (2007), duke university school of medicine.
clara raquel epstein (b. 1963), first mexican-american woman u.s. trained , u.s. board certified in neurological surgery , youngest recipient of prestigious lifetime achievement award in neurosurgery.

women s health movement in 1970s

the 1970s marked great increase of women entering , graduating medical school. 1930 1970, period of 40 years, 14,000 women graduated medical school. 1970 1980, period of 10 years, on 20,000 women graduated medical school. increase of women in medical field due both political , cultural changes.

two laws in united states lifted restrictions women in medical field -- title ix of higher education act amendments of 1972 , public health service act of 1975, banning discrimination on grounds of gender. in november 1970, assembly of association of american medical colleges rallied equal rights in medical field.

at same time, women s ideas , relation medical field shifting due women s movement.

a sharp increase of women in medical field led developments in doctor patient relationships, changes in terminology , theory. 1 area of medical practice challenged , changed gynecology. wendy kline talks blurring of clinical , sexual occurred in medical field in late 40s 60s, particularly in gynecology. kline says ensure young brides ready wedding night, [doctors] used pelvic exam form of sex instruction . in ellen frankfort’s book vaginal politics, frankfort talks shame , humiliation felt during pap test; naked, dressed; lying down, standing up; quiet, giving orders

with higher numbers of women enrolled in medical school, medical practices gynecology challenged , changed. 1 medical student quoted in kline’s book saying, since experienced own exams humiliating procedure, feared inflicting same humiliation on person. in 1972 university of iowa medical school instituted new training program pelvic , breast examinations. students act both doctor , patient, allowing each student understand procedure , create more gentle, respectful examination. method quite different previous practice in doctors taught assert power on patients. changes in ideologies , practices throughout 70s, 1980 on 75 schools had adopted new method.

with women entering medical field , women’s rights movements came women’s health movement sought alternative methods of health care women. came through creation of self-help books, notably our bodies, ourselves: book , women. book gave women manual understand body. challenged hospital treatment, , doctors practices. aside self-help books, many centres opened: birth centres run midwives, safe abortion centres, , classes educating women on bodies, aim of providing non-judgmental, warm, , comfortable care women. kline speaks claim women taking on body in relation medical world; women felt not should women have access information bodies... should create knowledge. women’s health movement, along women involved in medical field, opened doors research , awareness female illness breast cancer , cervical cancer.

the small island nation of tuvalu in 2008 welcomed first tuvaluan female doctors result of australian aid.

while scholars in history of medicine had developed study of women in field—biographies of pioneering women physicians common prior 1960s—the study of women in medicine took particular root advent of women s movement in 1960s, , in conjunction women s health movement. 2 publications in 1973 critical in establishing women s health movement , scholarship women in medicine: first, publication of our bodies, ourselves in 1973 boston women s health collective, , second, witches, midwives, , nurses: history of female healers , short paper barbara ehrenreich , deirdre english in 1973. ehrenreich/english paper examined history of women in medicine professionalization of field excluded women, particularly midwives, practice. ehrenreich , english later expanded work full-length book, own good, connected exclusion of women practice of medicine sexist medical practices; text , our bodies, ourselves became key texts in women s health movement. english/ehrenreich text laid out insights professionalization of medicine , exclusion of women profession, , numerous scholars, such diana elizabeth long, have built upon , expanded work.