History Democratic Republic of the Congo

1 history

1.1 history
1.2 congo free state (1877–1908)
1.3 belgian congo (1908–60)
1.4 independence , political crisis (1960–65)
1.5 zaire (1971–97)
1.6 continental , civil wars (1996–present)
1.7 kivu conflict
1.8 kabila s term in office , multiple anti-government protests

history


early history

the area known dr congo populated 90,000 years ago, shown 1988 discovery of semliki harpoon @ katanda, 1 of oldest barbed harpoons ever found, believed have been used catch giant river catfish.

some historians believe bantu peoples began settling in extreme northwest of central africa @ beginning of 5th century , gradually started expand southward. propagation accelerated transition stone age iron age techniques. people living in south , southwest san bushmen , hunter-gatherer groups, technology involved minimal use of metal technologies.

the development of metal tools during time period revolutionized agriculture , animal husbandry. led displacement of hunter-gatherer groups in east , southeast.

the 10th century marked final expansion of bantu in west-central africa. rising populations made possible intricate local, regional , foreign commercial networks traded in salt, iron , copper.

congo free state (1877–1908)


view of leopoldville station , port in 1884.

belgian exploration , administration took place 1870s until 1920s. first led sir henry morton stanley, undertook explorations under sponsorship of king leopold ii of belgium. eastern regions of precolonial congo heavily disrupted constant slave raiding, arab–swahili slave traders such infamous tippu tip, known stanley.

leopold had designs on become congo colony. in succession of negotiations, leopold, professing humanitarian objectives in capacity chairman of front organization association internationale africaine, played 1 european rival against another.

leopold formally acquired rights congo territory @ conference of berlin in 1885 , made land private property. named congo free state. leopold s regime began various infrastructure projects, such construction of railway ran coast capital of leopoldville (now kinshasa), took 8 years complete. such infrastructure projects aimed @ making easier increase assets leopold , associates extract colony.

in free state, colonists brutalized local population producing rubber, spread of automobiles , development of rubber tires created growing international market. rubber sales made fortune leopold, built several buildings in brussels , ostend honor himself , country. enforce rubber quotas, army, force publique, called in , made practice of cutting off limbs of natives matter of policy.

during period of 1885–1908, millions of congolese died consequence of exploitation , disease. in areas population declined dramatically – has been estimated sleeping sickness , smallpox killed half population in areas surrounding lower congo river.

a government commission later concluded population of congo had been reduced half during period, determining precisely how many people died impossible, no accurate records exist.

belgian congo (1908–60)

in 1908, belgian parliament, despite initial reluctance, bowed international pressure (especially united kingdom) , took on free state king leopold ii.

on 18 october 1908, belgian parliament voted in favour of annexing congo belgian colony. executive power went belgian minister of colonial affairs, assisted colonial council (conseil colonial) (both located in brussels). belgian parliament exercised legislative authority on belgian congo. in 1926 colonial capital moved boma léopoldville, 300 kilometres (190 mi) further upstream interior.

the transition congo free state belgian congo break featured large degree of continuity. last governor-general of congo free state, baron wahis, remained in office in belgian congo , majority of leopold ii s administration him. opening congo , natural , mineral riches belgian economy remained main motive colonial expansion – however, other priorities, such healthcare , basic education, gained in importance.

force publique soldiers in belgian congo in 1918. @ peak, force publique had around 19,000 african soldiers, led 420 white officers.

colonial administrators ruled territory , dual legal system existed (a system of european courts , 1 of indigenous courts, tribunaux indigènes). indigenous courts had limited powers , remained under firm control of colonial administration. records show in 1936, 728 belgian administrators ran colony. belgian authorities permitted no political activity in congo whatsoever, , force publique, locally-recruited army under belgian command, put down attempts @ rebellion.

the belgian population of colony increased 1,928 in 1910 89,000 in 1959.

the belgian congo directly involved in 2 world wars. during world war (1914–1918), initial stand-off between force publique , german colonial army in german east africa (tanganyika) turned open warfare joint anglo-belgian invasion of german colonial territory in 1916 , 1917 during east african campaign. force publique gained notable victory when marched tabora in september 1916, under command of general charles tombeur after heavy fighting.

after 1918, belgium rewarded participation of force publique in east african campaign league of nations mandate on german colony of ruanda-urundi. during world war ii, belgian congo provided crucial source of income belgian government-in-exile in london, , force publique again participated in allied campaigns in africa. belgian congolese forces under command of belgian officers notably fought against italian colonial army in ethiopia in asosa, bortaï , saïo under major-general auguste-eduard gilliaert during second east african campaign.

independence , political crisis (1960–65)


the leader of abako, joseph kasa-vubu, first democratically elected president of republic of congo (léopoldville)



patrice lumumba, first democratically elected prime minister of republic of congo (léopoldville)

in may 1960, growing nationalist movement, mouvement national congolais or mnc party, led patrice lumumba, won parliamentary elections. patrice lumumba became first prime minister of democratic republic of congo. parliament elected president joseph kasavubu, of alliance des bakongo (abako) party. other parties emerged included parti solidaire africain (or psa) led antoine gizenga, , parti national du peuple (or pnp) led albert delvaux , laurent mbariko. (congo 1960, dossiers du crisp, belgium).

the belgian congo achieved independence on 30 june 1960 under name république du congo ( republic of congo or republic of congo in english). shortly after independence force publique mutinied, , on july 11 province of katanga (led moïse tshombe) , south kasai engaged in secessionist struggles against new leadership. of 100,000 europeans had remained behind after independence fled country, opening way congolese replace european military , administrative elite.

as neighboring french colony of middle congo (moyen congo) chose name republic of congo upon achieving independence, 2 countries more commonly known congo-léopoldville , congo-brazzaville , after capital cities.

on 5 september 1960, kasavubu dismissed lumumba office. lumumba declared kasavubu s action unconstitutional , crisis between 2 leaders developed. (cf. sécession au katanga – j.gerald-libois -brussels- crisp)

with events set in motion u.s. , belgium, on 14 september, lumumba arrested forces loyal joseph mobutu. on 17 january 1961, handed on katangan authorities , executed belgian-led katangese troops. investigation belgium s parliament in 2001 found belgium morally responsible murder of mr lumumba, , country has since officially apologised role in death.

amidst widespread confusion , chaos, temporary government led technicians (collège des commissaires) evariste kimba. katanga secession ended in january 1963 assistance of un forces. several short-lived governments, of joseph ileo, cyrille adoula , moise tshombe, took on in quick succession.

lumumba had appointed joseph mobutu chief of staff of new congo army, armée nationale congolaise (anc).

taking advantage of leadership crisis between kasavubu , lumumba, mobutu garnered enough support within army create mutiny. financial support united states , belgium, mobutu paid soldiers privately. aversion of western powers communism , leftist ideology influenced decision finance mobutu s quest neutralize kasavubu , lumumba in coup proxy. constitutional referendum after mobutu s coup of 1965 resulted in country s official name being changed democratic republic of congo. in 1971 mobutu changed name again, time republic of zaire .

zaire (1971–97)


mobutu sese seko , richard nixon in washington, d.c., 1973.

the new president had support of united states because of staunch opposition communism, believing administration serve effective counter communist movements in africa. one-party system established, , mobutu declared himself head of state. periodically held elections in candidate. although relative peace , stability achieved, mobutu s government guilty of severe human rights violations, political repression, cult of personality , corruption.

corruption became prevalent term le mal zairois or zairean sickness , meaning gross corruption, theft , mismanagement, coined, reportedly mobutu himself. international aid, in form of loans, enriched mobutu while allowed national infrastructure such roads deteriorate little one-quarter of had existed in 1960. zaire became kleptocracy mobutu , associates embezzled government funds.

in campaign identify himself african nationalism, starting on 1 june 1966, mobutu renamed nation s cities: léopoldville became kinshasa [the country democratic republic of congo – kinshasa], stanleyville became kisangani, elisabethville became lubumbashi, , coquilhatville became mbandaka. renaming campaign completed in 1970s.

in 1971, mobutu renamed country republic of zaire, fourth name change in 11 years , sixth overall. congo river renamed zaire river.

during 1970s , 1980s, invited visit united states on several occasions, meeting u.s. presidents richard nixon, ronald reagan , george h. w. bush. following dissolution of soviet union u.s. relations mobutu cooled, no longer deemed necessary cold war ally. opponents within zaire stepped demands reform. atmosphere contributed mobutu s declaring third republic in 1990, constitution supposed pave way democratic reform. reforms turned out largely cosmetic. mobutu continued in power until armed forces forced him flee zaire, in 1997.

continental , civil wars (1996–present)


belligerents of second congo war

by 1996, following rwandan civil war , genocide , ascension of tutsi-led government in rwanda, rwandan hutu militia forces (interahamwe) fled eastern zaire , used refugee camps base incursions against rwanda. allied zairian armed forces (faz) launch campaign against congolese ethnic tutsis in eastern zaire.

a coalition of rwandan , ugandan armies invaded zaire overthrow government of mobutu, , control mineral resources of zaire, launching first congo war. coalition allied opposition figures, led laurent-désiré kabila, becoming alliance of democratic forces liberation of congo (afdl). in 1997 mobutu fled , kabila marched kinshasa, naming himself president , reverting name of country democratic republic of congo.

kabila later requested foreign military forces return own countries—he had concerns rwandan officers running army plotting coup give presidency tutsi report directly rwandan president, paul kagame. rwandan troops retreated goma , launched new tutsi-led rebel military movement called rassemblement congolais pour la democratie (rcd) fight against kabila, while uganda instigated creation of new rebel movement called movement liberation of congo (mlc), led congolese warlord jean-pierre bemba. 2 rebel movements, along rwandan , ugandan troops, started second congo war attacking drc army in 1998. angolan, zimbabwean , namibian militaries entered hostilities on side of government.

kabila assassinated in 2001. son joseph kabila succeeded him , called multilateral peace-talks. un peacekeepers, monuc, known monusco, arrived in april 2001. in 2002 , 2003 bemba intervened in central african republic on behalf of former president, ange-félix patassé. talks led signing of peace accord in kabila share power former rebels. june 2003 foreign armies except of rwanda had pulled out of congo. transitional government set until election over. constitution approved voters, , on 30 july 2006 drc held first multi-party elections. election-result dispute between kabila , jean-pierre bemba turned all-out battle between supporters in streets of kinshasa. monuc took control of city. new election took place in october 2006, kabila won, , on december 2006 sworn in president.

refugees in congo


kivu conflict

however, laurent nkunda, member of rcd-goma, rcd branch integrated army, defected along troops loyal him , formed national congress defence of people (cndp), began armed rebellion against government, starting kivu conflict. believed again backed rwanda way tackle hutu group, democratic forces liberation of rwanda (fdlr). in march 2009, after deal between drc , rwanda, rwandan troops entered drc , arrested nkunda , allowed pursue fdlr militants. cndp signed peace treaty government in agreed become political party , have soldiers integrated national army in exchange release of imprisoned members. in 2012 leader of cndp, bosco ntaganda, , troops loyal him, mutinied , formed rebel military march 23 movement, claiming violation of treaty government.

in resulting m23 rebellion, m23 briefly captured provincial capital of goma in november 2012. neighboring countries, particularly rwanda, have been accused of using rebels groups proxies gain control of resource-rich country , of arming rebels, claim deny. in march 2013, united nations security council authorized united nations force intervention brigade, first offensive united nations peacekeeping unit, neutralize armed groups. on 5 november 2013, m23 declared end insurgency.

people fleeing villages due fighting between fardc , rebels groups, north kivu, 2012

additionally, in northern katanga, mai-mai created laurent kabila slipped out of control of kinshasa gédéon kyungu mutanga s mai mai kata katanga briefly invading provincial capital of lubumbashi in 2013 , 400,000 persons displaced in province of 2013. on , off fighting in ituri conflict occurred between nationalist , integrationist front (fni) , union of congolese patriots (upc) claimed represent lendu , hema ethnic groups, respectively. in northeast, joseph kony s lra moved original bases in uganda , south sudan dr congo in 2005 , set camps in garamba national park.

in 2009, new york times reported people in congo continued die @ rate of estimated 45,000 per month – estimates of number have died long conflict range 900,000 5,400,000. death toll due widespread disease , famine; reports indicate half of individuals have died children under 5 years of age. there have been frequent reports of weapon bearers killing civilians, of destruction of property, of widespread sexual violence, causing hundreds of thousands of people flee homes, , of other breaches of humanitarian , human rights law. 1 study found more 400,000 women raped in democratic republic of congo every year.

kabila s term in office , multiple anti-government protests

in 2015, major protests broke out across country , protesters demanded joseph kabila step down president. protests began after passage of law congolese lower house that, if passed congolese upper house, keep kabila in power @ least until national census conducted (a process take several years , therefore keep him in power past planned 2016 elections, constitutionally barred participating in).

this bill passed; however, gutted of provision keep joseph kabila in power until census took place. census supposed take place, no longer tied when elections take place. in 2015, elections scheduled late 2016 , tenuous peace held in congo.

on 27 november, congolese foreign minister, raymond tshibanda, told press no elections held in 2016, after 20 december, end of president kabila s term. in conference in madagascar, tshibanda said kabila s government had consulted election experts congo, united nations , elsewhere, , has been decided voter registration operation end on july 31, 2017, , elections take place in april 2018. protests broke out in country on 20 december when kabila s term in office ended. across country dozens of protesters killed , hundreds arrested.

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