Modern medicine Women in medicine

wafaa el-sadr egyptian epidemiologist , macarthur fellow, directs 2 programmes @ columbia university mailman school of public health.



monique frize (centre) canadian academic , biomedical engineer known expertise in medical instrumentation , decision support systems (dss).



awa marie coll-seck senegal s former minister of health , international public health expert, executive director of joint united nations programme on hiv/aids , roll malaria partnership.

in 1540, henry viii of england granted charter company of barber-surgeons; while led specialization of healthcare professions (i.e. surgeons , barbers), women barred professional practice. women did, however, continue practice during time. continued practice without formal training or recognition in england , north america next several centuries. women s participation in medical professions limited legal , social practices during decades while medicine professionalizing. however, women openly practiced medicine in allied health professions (nursing, midwifery, etc.), , throughout nineteenth , twentieth centuries, women made significant gains in access medical education , medical work through of world. these gains tempered setbacks; instance, mary roth walsh documented decline in women physicians in in first half of twentieth century, such there fewer women physicians in 1950 there in 1900. however, through latter half of twentieth century, women made gains across board. in united states, instance, women 9% of total medical school enrollment in 1969; had increased 20% in 1976. 1985, women constituted 16% of practicing physicians.

at beginning of twenty-first century in industrialized nations, women have made significant gains, have yet achieve parity throughout medical profession. women have achieved parity in medical school in industrialized countries, since 2003 forming majority of united states medical student body. in 2007-2008, women accounted 49% of medical school applicants , 48.3% of accepted. according american association of medical colleges (aamc) 48.3% (16,838) of medical degrees awarded in in 2009-10 earned women, increase 26.8% in 1982-3. while more women taking part in medical field, 2013-2014 study reported there fewer women in leadership positions within academic realm of medicine. study found women accounted 16% of deans, 21% of professors, , 38% of faculty, compared male counterparts.

however, practice of medicine remains disproportionately male overall. in industrialized nations, recent parity in gender of medical students has not yet trickled parity in practice. in many developing nations, neither medical school nor practice approach gender parity.

moreover, there skews within medical profession: medical specialties, such surgery, male-dominated, while other specialties female-dominated, or becoming so. in united states, female physicians outnumber male physicians in pediatrics , female residents outnumber male residents in family medicine, obstetrics , gynecology, pathology, , psychiatry.

women continue dominate in nursing. in 2000, 94.6% of registered nurses in united states women. in health care professions whole in us, women numbered approximately 14.8 million, of 2011.

biomedical research , academic medical professions—i.e., faculty @ medical schools—are disproportionately male. research on issue, called leaky pipeline national institutes of health , other researchers, shows while women have achieved parity men in entering graduate school, variety of discrimination causes them drop out @ each stage in academic pipeline: graduate school, postdoc, faculty positions, achieving tenure; and, ultimately, in receiving recognition groundbreaking work. (see women in science broader discussion.)

glass ceiling

the glass ceiling used metaphor convey undefined obstacles women , minorities face in workplace.

one study surveyed physician mothers , physician daughters in order analyze effect discrimination , harassment have on individual , career. study included 84% of physician mothers graduated medical school prior 1970, majority of these physicians graduating in 1950’s , 1960’s. authors of study stated discrimination in medical field persisted after title vii discrimination legislation passed in 1965.

according study, 1 third of physician daughters reported experiencing form of gender discrimination in medical school, field training, , work environment. study stated both generations equally experienced gender discrimination within work environments.

this article provided overview on history of gender discrimination, claiming gender initiated systematic exclusion of women medical schools. case until 1970, when national organization women (now) filed class action lawsuit against medical schools in united states.  more specifically, lawsuit successful in forcing medical schools comply civil rights legislation. success seen 1975 when number of women in medicine had tripled, , continued grow years progressed. 2005, on 25% of physicians , around 50% of medical school students women. increase of women in medicine came increase of women identifying racial/ethnic minority, yet population still largely underrepresented in comparison general population of medical field.

within specific study, 22% of physician mothers , 24% of physician daughters identified being ethnic minority. these women reported experiencing instances of exclusion career opportunities result of race , gender. 

in article titled m used it”: longitudinal qualitative study of third year female medical students experiences of gendered encounters in medical education, author described how confidence in ability varies based upon gender. according article, females tend have lessened confidence in abilities doctor, yet performance equivalent of male counterparts. study commented on impact of power dynamics within medical school, established hierarchy shapes educational experience.

specifically, article described how power dynamics led formation of “hidden curriculum” in medical school, revolves around understanding contribution of gender roles in regards being female doctor. according article, position holds females more accountable actions result of unrealistic expectations set forth these gender roles, expects female doctors take on nurturing , matronly persona when dealing patients. hidden curriculum, according article, integral aspect of female’s medical education must learned in order tolerate instances of gender discrimination.

on topic of power dynamics, study commented on nature of sexual harassment, stating commonly perpetrated within career training stages, people in positions of power. according article, instances of sexual harassment attribute high attrition rates of females in stem fields.

another study describes sexual harassment growing problem due fact goes underreported, said caused transient nature of career training, alongside weak policies , perpetrators holding positions of power on victim.